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4.3.1. Evolution of the concept of a « common European defence » ?

The « Brussels Pact » signed in 1948 marked the beginning, following the Second World War, of mutual military aid between France, the United Kingdom, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.  In 1954 the « Brussels Pact » expanded to include the Federal Republic of German and Italy, thus creating the Western European Union (WEU), a European organisation for cooperation in the area of defence and security, in which the members undertook to offer military assistance in the case of aggression. The French National Assembly rejected the European Defence Community two months earlier, hence for a considerable period the WEU remained the unique vehicle for cooperation in the area of defence and security in Europe.

In 1992, the Maastricht Treat referred for the first time in 40 years of a CESP by including the term common security and defence policy.  At the same time the  1992 in « St Petersburg » declaration the members of the WEU declared themselves prepared to put military units at the disposition of the EU for specific defence missions, humanitarian missions and peace-keeping missions.  These were called the « Petersburg Tasks ».

Since the Maastricht Summit, the definition of a « European Security and Defence Policy » (ESDP) is included in the CESP, that is to say, the Amsterdam Treaty began a stepwise transfer of responsibilities from the WEU to the EU.

Thus, today the ESDP consists of the capacity to put together a force capable of carrying out the missions described in the « Petersburg tasks », whilst simultaneously respecting the collective defence undertakings of NATO and the WEU.

In recent years, matters have greatly evolved: the European Council of Helsinki in December 1999 decided to reinforce the ESDP considerably :

• it fixed a specific objective: The EU ought to be able, before 2003, to deploy a « rapid reaction force » within 60 days, and to maintain it for at least a year.  The force should have a personal strength of 50,000 to 60,000 and be capable of carrying out all missions;
• it announced the creation of structures for decision-making within the Council in order to permit the EU to ensure the political orientation and the strategic orientation necessary in such operations. The « European Union Military Committee » (EUMC) as well as the « EU Staff Council » (EUSC) would be created by the Treaty of Nice;
• it announced the creation of a mechanism for the non-military management of crises, in order to make optimum use of the civilian resources available to member states.

Thus, from 2003 onward the EU had a European combat corps, about 60,000 strong, at its disposal.  This force could act either autonomously or though making use of the means and capacities of NATO.

Finally, the European leaders meeting in Brussels in December 2003 adopted an important instrument, the « European security strategy », which permitted the determination of the essential missions and priority areas for action: the struggle against terrorism, a strategy for the Middle East, and a global policy toward Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Information about NATO :
www.nato.int

4.3.2. What are the origins of the CESP ?

The beginning of the 1950s was marked by an ambitious attempt to create a European defence committee, which failed in the end.  The « Pleven Plan* » envisaged the creation of a European army, integrated under a common command.  After lengthy negotiations amongst the six members of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) an agreement was reached in 1952, with the signature of the Treaty which set up the European Defence Community (EDC), which was supplemented by the initiation of Europe as a political entity.  Following the rejection of the EDC by the French National Assembly in 1954 the project was abandoned (see question 7.1.4).

After a second unsuccessful attempt in the 1960s, it was finally with the « Davignon Report », adopted by the foreign ministers of the six member countries in 1970 that the « European Political Cooperation » (EPC) was established (see question 7.1.8).  The EPC implies a periodic consultation amongst Member States regarding current issues of international policy. The countries made common declarations and condemned aggressions throughout the world, or supported the United Nations or other peace initiatives, but never arrived at a unanimous decision over particularly sensitive issues.

It is in the context of the geopolitical context of the 1990s – which saw the end of the Cold War, the reunification of Germany and the debacle in the former Yugoslavia, that Member States finally decided to equip themselves with a new instrument, the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

In the Treaty of Maastricht, the CFSP constitutes a « second column » for the EU, as an intergovernmental cooperation between member states. The main decisions require unanimous support (see question 7.1.14).

4.3.3. What are the objectives of CFSP ?

The objectives of CFSP are :

• the safeguard of common values and fundamental interests of the Union ;
• the reinforcement of the security of the Union ;
• peace maintenance  and the reinforcement of international security ;
• the promotion  of international cooperation ;
• the reinforcement of democracy and a state founded on law, including human rights.

The Union pursues these objectives through a systematic cooperation between Member States (who remain sovereign in respect to their own respective foreign policies), on the one hand, and the setting in motion of common actions in the areas where the Member States have common interests, on the other.

The Member States are required to coordinate their action within international organisation and during international conferences, where they defend common positions.  As for the EU itself, it can express itself through decisions, conclusions of international agreements, declarations and contact with third party countries.

Finally, the Treaty of Maastricht also foresaw, in the case of the CESP, the gradual establishment of a European security and defence policy (ESDP) which could lead to the creation of a common defence structure.

For the history of the CESP amd the ESDP :
www.europarl.europa.eu/facts/6_1_1_fr.htm
www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/article-imprim.php3

4.3.4. How does the CESP operate ?

Following the dramatic disintegration of the former Yugoslavia, important reforms were added to the CESP with the Treaties of Amsterdam and Nice ( see questions 7.1.15 and 7.1.16), which permit the EU to speak with a single voice on the international stage and to make more of an impact on the political management of conflicts.

Today, the EU has a visibility and diplomatic weight, both of which have been reinforced, thanks to the creation of the post of Chief Representative for the CESP and specific mechanisms.

Their weakness comes notably from the fact that the general orientations of the CESP require unanimous support in the European Council.  Only executive decisions can be taken by a EU Council meeting of the Member States’ foreign ministers, deciding, on occasion, by majority.

Member States also have recourse to the « constructive abstention ».  The country which abstains is not required to apply the decision, but must accept that the decision is an engagement of the EU as a whole.

Legal actions within the domain of the CESP are not regulations or directives, but they are:

• « a common strategy » : adopted by the European Council in areas of important mutual interest to the Member States.  Up till now, they are four: with regard to Russia, the Ukraine, the Mediterranean Region and the Balkans;
• « joint action » : adopted by the EU Council for a specific operation, for example sending guard dogs to the Ukraine for an election;
• « a common position » : adopted by the EU Council to define the position of the EU regarding a particular question, for example the situation in Rwanda;
• « decisions » : adopted by the EU Council to put into action legal acts (strategy, action and common positions) ;
• « declarations » : adopted by the EU Council and permitting rapid position-taking.

Information about the origin and operation of the CESP :
europa.eu/scadplus/leg/fr/lvb/r00001.htm

4.3.5. What is the role of EU institutions in the CESP ?

The institutions have a limited role in the « second pillar ». The Commission is associated with the work but its right to take initiatives is not exclusive.  Jointly with the Council presidency, the Commission ought to inform the Parliament regularly, who in turn, can formulate recommendations to the European Council.

4.3.6. Who is « Mr CESP » ?

The post of « Chief representative for the  CESP », more well known under the name of  « Mr or Mrs/Miss/Ms CESP », was introduced in 1999 by the Treaty of Amsterdam. Mr Javier Solana*, former secretary-general of NATO, was nominated to this post by the national governments and in 2007 he is still representing the joint diplomacy of the Member States. He is, at the same time, the General Secretary of the EU Council as well as the Western European Union  (WEU) (see 7.1.4.).

« Mr CESP » has the responsibility of elaborating and putting into actions the decisions of the Council. At the request of the Council presidency he can enter into political dialogue with third parties, whilst assuring the visibility and coherency of the CESP.

Subject to his authority there is a « unit for planning and rapid alert » (introduced by the Treaty of Amsterdam) whose objective is to contribute to a reaction by the EU which is more effective and less dispersed than if it was organised by Member States acting separately.

It is also envisaged that the unit will permit Member States to act as group at the logistic level, and to achieve in this way a greater role on the international stage.

Other CESP (but also ESDP) structures placed under the authority of the Council and located in Brussels are :

• « the Committee of Policy and Security » (COPS), a permanent a political and military structure, aimed at an autonomous and operational defence policy for the Union ; COPS observes the international situation and submits recommendations to CESP ;
• « the Military Committee of the European Union » (MCUE), instituted by the Treaty of Nice and responsible for furnishing COPS with military advice and recommendations regarding all military matters within the EU ;
• « the EU Staff Council » (EUSC), instituted by the Treaty of Nice, with the task of applying the policies and decisions of MCUE.  It is becoming the EU's source of military expertise.,

Information about le the Chief Representative for the CESP, Mr Javier Solana,  Charlemagne Prize 2007 :
www.cafebabel.com/fr/article.asp

Information about the creation of the Unit for Planning and Rapid Alert :
europa.eu.int/eur-lex/fr/accessible/treaties/fr/livre468.htm

Information about  COPS :
europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/political_security_committee_fr.htm

Information about  the WEU and the MCEU  :
www.weu.int/Historique.htm
europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/western_european_union_fr.htm

4.3.7. What is the « Troika » ?

The « Troika » provides an external representation for the EU.  It has no institutional status.  It consists of :

• the « Chief Representative for the CESP » ;
• the presidency of the Council of the EU,  who is, in fact, the foreign minister of the country which holds the presidency of the EU ;
• the member of the Commission responsible for external relations.

Information about theTroika :
europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/troika_fr.htm

4.3.8. What is meant by the term « Petersburg tasks » ?

The « Petersburg tasks », established in 1992 within the Council of Ministers of the WEU, represents today the principal objective of action by the ESDP and which concerns :

• humanitarian missions and evacuation of foreign nationals ;
• peacekeeping missions ;
• missions for managing crises ;
• missions for the re-establishment of peace.

Information about the Petersburg tasks :
europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/petersberg_tasks_fr.htm

4.3.9. How does the ESDP operate ?

To summarise, the total of the capacities and structures of the ESDP is divided into three components : the military management of crises, the civilian management of crises and the prevention of conflicts.

1. The management of military crises.

The overalll objective, that is to say, the capacity of the Union to deploy forces of up to 60,000 soldiers and within a period of 60 days, is accompanied by political-military structures :

• « the Committee for Policy and Security » (COPS), the centre of gravity for activities for the management of crises; it follows the evolution of the international situations, contributes to the refinement of policies and supervises the translation into action ;
• « the Military Committee of  the European Union » (MCUE);
• « the Staff Council of the European Union » (SCEU).

At the international level, the EU collaborates closely with NATO, the OSCE (??) and the UN.

2. The management of civil crises.

Four instruments, put in place to assure security and stability, are intended to :

• establish public order : possibility of supplying police officers for missions to re-establish order, in cooperation with a military force, or missions for the training of local police officers ;
• reinforcement of a state founded on law : possibility of supplying judges and other experts in the area ;
• setting of civil administration : possibility of supplying experts to establish or guarantee elections, a fiscal system, education, water supply, etc. ;
• creating a system of civil protection : possibility of assisting humanitarian staff by rescue operations, emergency operations, etc.

In addition, a « committee for the civil aspects of crisis management » was created in order to improve relations between the military and civilian components.

3. Prevention of conflicts.

This constitutes the most important element of the ESDP, in which the Commission plays a central role, with the aim of improving the coherence and effectiveness of all actions undertaken by the EU.

The Commission aims to :

• coordinate and use the resources of the Union in a more systematic manner ;
• identify and combat the causes at the beginning of the conflict ;
• improve the capacity to intervene in conflicts as they form ;
• promote international cooperation in these respects.

A « rapid reaction mechanism » for the immediate financing of crisis management has been created.  It can be put into effect if there is a threat to public order or people's security or the stability of the country. It is short-term non-reimbursable aid, intended of all activities not covered by ECHO.

Finally, the EU makes increasingly frequent use of « sanctions or restrictive measures » (for example, embargos on arms, general commercial restrictions or specific restrictions on entering EU territory), to respond to violations of international law, human rights, or illegal and undemocratic practices.

Information about operation of the ESDP :
europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/european_security_defence_policy_fr.htm

4.3.10. What is the composition of a « rapid reaction force » ?

A « rapid reaction force », available since 2003 constitutes a sort of credible military reserve, which permits the EU to carry out a number of missions, such as humanitarian missions, peace-keeping missions, management of crises, or the re-establishment of peace, during at least a year. This force is approximately 60,000 strong.

The « rapid reaction force » replaced « Eurocorps », which had been formed in Strasbourg in 1993 by the armies of Belgium, Germany, France, Luxembourg and Spain. It is not a true integrated European army, given that it is composed of elements taken from national forces.

The missions carried out by the « rapid reaction force » include, for example : the mission in the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia (April 2003), the EUFOR mission stabilisation force in Bosnia-Herzegovina (since 2005). More recently, in 2006, two sizeable missions : the sending of 7 500 troops, led by France and Italy and the German Navy, in order to support the forces of the United Nations in Southern Lebanon, following fighting between Hezbollah and the Israeli Army.  The second consisted of deploying a European force of 3 500 soldiers, led by Germany, in order to assist the orderly execution of presidential and legislative elections in the Congo.

4.3.11. Does the ESDP have responsibility for the defence of Member States ?

The ESDP does not have responsibility for the defence of Member States! This task is assumed within the framework of NATO, which remains the basis for the collective defence of the Member States involved.  The ESDP is not considered as a rival to NATO, but a complement.

Moreover, the EU recognises that peace and international security is the responsibility, in the first instance, of the United Nations.

4.3.12. What is the role of the « European Defence Agency » ?

« The European Defence Agency » (EDA) is one of the three agencies of the second pillar, along with the CESP and the ESDP. Founded in 2004 and located in Brussels, it controls the activities of the EU in respect to armament, supports research in respect to defence, and coordinates arms purchases common to Member States.  

The two other agencies of the second pillar are : (1) The EU Institute of Security Studies (EUISS).  Founded in 2002 and located in Paris, it contributes to a common culture with respect to European security. (2) The EU Satellite Centre (EUSC) – created in 2002 in Torrejón, Spain. It is used in the framework of crisis prevention and for humanitarian aid in case of natural catastrophes.